Monday, January 27, 2020
Global governance play in globalisation
Global governance play in globalisation Globalization is seen as a universal change in the lives of people either positively or negatively. In this essay I will start by defining globalization from different perspectives. As in the argument of some critics, globalization has benefits as well as limitations, Therefore it is necessary to look at those advantages and shortcomings. Another important aspect is the theory of international relations and globalization. Each of this theory emphasise on power but has different notions to its meaning. However, exercising power via globalization is seen as a challenge in the international relations theories today. Furthermore, institutions of global governance play different role in globalization as to what they are specialized in and known for. Majority of these institutions are determined to achieve their roles despite challenges. These institutions are so vast that they cannot be exhausted. Therefore, in this essay I will focus on the United Nations Organization. It is an institution with several agencies. These agencies are not liable to the United Nations Organization in terms their subsequent activities. But they are seen as part of the United Nations. Therefore, role that these agencies play in globalization is what i will also discuss in this essay. Moreover, the Millennium Declaration determined to achieve to ten objectives by 2015.The principal objective is halving rural poverty by 2015 and globalization is seen as a tool to which they will achieve their aim. How they intend carrying out this task is what i will also discuss in this essay. That is strategies used and how it was implemented .Finally, this essay will be concluded by summarising the whole point and To start with, globalization, as argued in John Baylis and Steve Smith (2001:14), is defined in five different ways, as internationalization which connotes the coexistence and reliance on two or more countries.Another is liberalization defined as the freedom of trade without governments restriction.Universalization which can be understood as the disperse of knowledge to the world.Westernization is portrayed as the American opinion of implementing globalization and lastly Deterrritorialization is observed as exchange for geography that is territorial area, distance and boarders. Furthermore, globalization can also be understood as the intensification of social worldwide relations that connect localities from distant in a way that the happenings in the locals are modified by events occurring at distance of miles away and vice versa. In other words, it is a process of amalgamating peoples of the world into a unified state.(John Baylis and Steve Smith 2001:15) In sum, globalisation can be defined as an economic, social, and political developed world that has effect on the peoples and societies mostly in the underdeveloped and third world. These latter world has benefited positively and negatively from the events initiated by the developed world. Such benefits includes communication that is the world wide web, radio transmission, satellite communication, television communication, global newspapers, which has made communication easy and flexible for people..Also the global franchise Pepsi, Guinness, Pizza Hut and the global economy as well as global disease such as AIDS, Kidney Failure, Cancer ,Etc. They are all features of globalisation. John Baylis and Steve Smith (2001:14-16) However, as argued in John Baylis and Steve Smith (2001:19), globalisation has advantages and disadvantages In term of its benefit to the world .It has made the ease of communication stress less and affordable. For instance internet access allows instant message rather that posting which take more than twenty four hours. Also the electronic mass media communication such as radio, television, telephone communication etc has allowed easy access to information and as well as relating to people within and far away. The economy system is seen as a benefit in globalization, Trade and finance are expanding. Foreign currencies like the US dollar, in Euro, Yen, are use all over the world international and in the local countries to purchase goods .Global culture allows interrelation among people from different part of the world to appreciate one and the others culture and religious which avoids ethnic and religious crisis. Moreover, in the argument of John Baylis and Steve Smith (2001:19).Though globalisation has benefitted the world in enormous ways there are limitations to what it posses. Globalisation seems to be limited to the world it was invented. Other societies that are not in the developed world are still back dated in terms of communication, economy and culture. This is as a result where ethnic and religious crises are still very common. Furthermore, it is also argued that there are limited companies from different part of the world in the international trade economy where different countries merge as a company to trade internationally, but these are rather done within a particular country. That is the global economy trade, investment as well as financial flow which are within three continents Europe, North America and Asia.(John Baylis and Steve Smith 2001: However, in the international relations theory globalization does not represent a transformation of the international system. It represents an adaptation of the means through which international interactions are exercised, combined with an increase in the number and types of actors. Therefore, one can know that globalization exist and matters as part of the structure of international relation because of the effects that it produces. A close look at these effects demonstrates that globalization is neither as independent nor causal phenomenon. Rather, globalization is best understood as a technology facilitated proliferation of the means through which power within the international system is channelled and pursued. What makes globalization a new, and essential, component of the contemporary international security are the increasingly complex conditions under which international actors exercise power. (security Dialogue 2004: 11) The classical approach to the study of international relations, realism, focuses on the nation-state as a barrier between the international system and the domestic sphere of politics. Domestic politics are seen as separated from the international system, which is characterised as anarchy or the absence of order. Realists focus on the nation-state especially the military and economic capabilities and seek to maximize power toward this end. (Security Dialogue 2004: 11) State must ensure that they can provide for their military and economic safety, and they cannot count on the goodwill of others. Institutions such as international law and formal international organizations might be useful as tools but they are not to be relied upon for security guarantees. (Mearsheimer: 1995). To realists, globalization reflects the hegemonic influence of the major powers in international politics. Realists tend to see proximity creating vulnenerability, which leads to conflict (Waltz, 1979: Measheimer, 2001) It is therefore argued that globalization, is more complicated than the realist theory alone can account for. That is if globalization is measured as the acceleration of transboundary communication, international networks, the diffusion of power, reciprocity and mutual dependence, and the expansion of universal norms and principles, a different conclusion about contemporary international politics emerges. This trend combined with the proliferation of non state actors such as the formal international organization, nongovernmental organization, and multinational cooperation to alter the playing field of international relations.(Security Dialogue 2004 :12) Neoliberal institution focuses on the unique conditions of globalization that reflect accelerating interdependence and its impact on how state perceive their interests(Keohane, 2002).In a condition of complex interdependence, state will recognize a mutual demand for cooperation, and new actors will emerge that affect international agenda setting while power becomes more diffused. Traditional measurement of power such as military capabilities will become less valuable to states as they prioritize long term benefits from cooperation over short term tactical advantages(Keohane and Nye, 2001) In recognizing a state based interest in collectively managing a globalized world, states seeks to reduce coordination problems, to establish agreed principles, norms, rules and decision making procedures, to facilitate transparency, to increase the capacity for bargaining and issue-linkage ,to enhance socialization toward an international community, and to lower the transaction costs of collective action.(security dialogue 2004:12) Another major school of international relations theory, constructivism, draws on social theory of human interaction and posits that the structure and content of international relation are the by-products of social interaction (Wendt, 1994). In this sense, not all states are alike, rather states reflect the social structures around which their peoples coalesce. Just as the domestic content of politics and culture shapes the identity of nation state, so does the nation state simultaneously shape the international environment (Wendt, 1999). The major paradigms of international relations provide an important basis for examining the relationship between globalization and security. Realists demonstrate that power matters and that there remain some key common goods that only the nation state can supply though realist are challenged to think harder about hoe power matters and how best to understand the new realities of global politics(Brown, 1998). The neoliberal institutionalist school shows that international system is increasingly complex and that states alone cannot fully provide for their own security. Neoliberals are, nevertheless, challenged to demonstrate exactly how cooperation can best be achieved Constructivist remind observers that inter-national relations are a battle not just power, interests, and agenda setting but also of ideas. The importance of material economic gains and hegemony only have meaning in so far as they are ideas given to people and societies. Consequently, people and societies have power to se ek positive or negative change for the future of globalization.(security dialogue:13) From these theoretical approaches to international relations, it is possible to delineate between the risk and opportunities that globalization provides for security provision. Realism suggests that globalization will breed suspicion, vulnerability conflict because the more interdependent people and state become, the more insecure they will be(Waltz:1979)Realism also suggests that the content of globalization reflects the relative distribution of power and favours the dominant international actors.(Security dialogue 2004: Alternatively, neoliberal institutionalism proceeds from basic optimism that managing globalization requires multilateral cooperation and states will define their quest for power in terms of mutual gains. Constructivist help observers recall the importance of identity and reinforce the fact that, while states matter, so does culture.(Huntington) These major theories of international relations share an emphasis on the role of power though each comes to different conclusions as to its meaning and consequences. Each analytical approach helps students, scholars, and policy makers to understand that the quest for power holds within it the potential for both security and insecurity, for both war and peace. Understanding the new means of excercing power via globalization is thus one of the most fundamental challenges for international relations theory today (Security Dialogue 2004:13) However, the institutions of global governance play several roles in globalization. The United Nations organization is one of other institutions with several agencies. Therefore, since the United Nations comprises of several agencies. These agencies are not liable to the United Nation in terms of the cabinet or congress.. They are independent of their roles. They are divided into separate regions which include, The United Nations Programme and Office, United Nations Regional Commission, United Nations Specialised agencies, and the Related Organization. However, the United Nations Programme and Office has the largest number of agencies in which few will be mentioned as well as the role they play in globalization. They are International Trade Center, United Nations ProgrammeHIV/AIDS,United Nations Childrens Fund, United Nations Development Fund for Women, United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Environment Programme, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, United Nations Human Settlements Programme, United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, United Nations Institute for Training and Research, United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, United Nations Office for Project Services, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, United Nations Population Fund, United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine, just to mention a few.(United Nations today 2008:12) The United Nations Development Fund for women is an organization fighting for women rights in all perspective. It protest against discrimination, violence, gender inequality and propose women right to inheritance, work, voice etc. Its main role includes ending violence against women which is a situation to prevent women from being molested, rape, or beaten up as well as trafficked across borders. In achieving this they work across multiple levels and sectors as well as including men as partners in enhancing community ownership. The agency is also trying to eradicate the spread of HIV/AIDS among women, in collaboration with the National AIDS Council and Ministries which ensures women access to drugs in order to continue to live healthy.(United Nations Development Funds: 1-5) The United Nations Childrens Funds is an organization mainly for children globally. This agency ensures that the well being of children are put to check. Its role basically is to prevent a child from violence, discrimination, poverty, diseases and so on. In achieving their aim they work in collaboration with other agencies like the Global Movement for Children which is dedicated to improving the life of every child as well as promoting education, equal right for children, and prevent the spread of disease.(United Nation Children Funds 2008:1) In the United Nations High commission for Refugee, which is a global organization that has its headquarters in continents like Africa, Asia, Europe, America etc. It ensures that the well being of individual are protected locally and internationally. They include the refugees, men, women, older people, asylum seekers etc. As part of their role they raise funds from different organization like the None Governmental organization, Private sectors, Individual Citizens, and also in collaboration with the United Nations for certain amount of humanitarian funding. This helps in terms of achieving their goals. They respond to emergency worldwide where there exists internal war, earthquakes etc. They also see to the right of asylum seekers are observed and not overlooked.(United Nations High commission for Refugee 2001-2009) The United Nations population Fund is an organization that ensure the well being as well the rights of individual are protected. Her role involves alleviation of global poverty, prevention of diseases such as HIV/AIDS, equal opportunity among citizens of the country, and healthy living. They also ensure abortion is put to stop and save every birth. They also assist countries in the collection of data and population analysis which enable government of a country to take account of the need of future generations, as well as the present. Ensure gender equality among both sex in which women has a major role in which involves good education and health. This enables families, communities as well as the countries benefits from. (United Nations Population Funds: 2008) The United Nations Development Programmes is a global agency under the United Nations. They assist citizens of different countries in building a better life. They also help to build and share solution to the challenge of democratic governance for instance on the 17th of November 2009 they supported the government of Bangladesh to sustain and build on the achievements of the last decade and to remain on track to achieve the Millennium Development Goals, also eradication of poverty, and preventing crisis recovery as well as HIV/AIDS.(UNDP) World food Programme is a global organization whose role involve fighting against hunger world wide, saving the lives of victims at war, civil conflicts and natural disasters. It is a voluntary funded organization and also part of the United Nations. They also work in collaboration with the Food Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Fund for Agricultural Development as well as Non Governmental Organization. Their main aim is to save lives and protect livelihood in emergencies, prepare for emergency, restore and rebuild lives, reduce hunger as well as to strengthen the capacity of countries to reduce hunger (World Food Programme: 2009) Another group of agencies under the United Nation is the specialised agencies, which includes, the international Labour Organization, International Monetary Fund, Food and Agricultural Organization, International Maritime Organization, United Nations Educational ,Scientific and cultural Organization, World Health organization, International Telecommunication Union, World Intellectual Property Organization, World Tourism Organization, among others. The International Labour Organization promote right to work, encourage decent employment opportunities, enhance social protection and strengthen dialogue in handling work related issues The organization helps in the creation of decent jobs. It is a global body responsible for drawing up and overseeing international labour standards as well as working with its member state which includes: Albania, Algeria, Angola, Azerbaijan, Bah ran, Belgium, Bolivia, Canada, Chad, Columbia, the Congo, Ghana, Greece, Lebanon, Kuwait, Liberia, just to mention a few. To the International Labour Organization Poverty eradication is by ensuring that employment is available to all. (International Labour Organization: 1996-2009) The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural organization is designed to promote international cooperation among its member states and six associates members in the field of education, science, culture and communication. Its role is to ensure and observe human rights, mutual respect as well as poverty eradication (UNESCO: 1995-2009). The international telecommunication Union is an information and communication organization where both the governments and the private sectors enhance networks and services. Its role has been global use of the radio spectrum, promotion of international cooperation in assigning satellite orbit. It address the issue of global challenges which is the climate change as well as enhancing cyber security This agency organise worldwide, regional exhibition and forums, such as the International Telecommunication World, as well as linking together representatives of governments and the telecommunications including international telecommunication Industry to have exchange of ideas, knowledge, and technology for the benefit of the global community and in particular the developing world (ITU: 2009) The related organizations include, International Atomic Energy Agency, Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Preparatory committee for the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty Organization, and World Trade Organization. The International Atomic Energy Agency is a worlds atomic peace organization. They are in collaboration with their member states as well as other partners globally in order to ensure safety, security, and peaceful nuclear technology. It is an independent international organization related to the United Nations system. These relationships are regulated by special agreement. Their role is to ensure that safe nuclear materials and activities are not used for military purpose. As part of its role, it helps countries in enhancing nuclear safety and security and to prepare for and respond to emergency as well as mobilizing peaceful applications of nuclear science and technology (IAEA 2003-2009) The organization in charge of prohibition of chemical weapon is body responsible for carrying out chemical weapons convention. It has been given the task to achieving its objectives. This is to making sure that the provision and that of international verification is carried out. The destruction of chemical weapons is seen as the conventions highest budget. The proceeds from the state-of-art technology is its major source income in destroying chemical weapons and minimizing the risk of people and the environment at every level and that of transportation and supply of ammunitions.States protect their citizens because of these dreadful and dangerous weapons. They now concentrate on the practical use of chemical weapons for peaceful and capacity buildings. Program funded by member state is also given aid in order for the organization to improve the implementation of chemical weapons to all for peaceful purpose and restricting its prohibition. (OPWC) The United Nations main role is to ensure that the well being of the people are under control. Also to prevent wars among states, and the need of people are met globally especially in the underdeveloped world . As in the argument in John Baylis and Steve Smith (2001:332). Poverty is seen as a global issue not just in the underdeveloped world. As in the argument of Ruth Lister (2004:1) deep poverty is not just a phenomenon of the global South but exists also within the affluent North. Therefore, another major aspect in this essay is the role of United Nations as an institution of global governance and the impact of globalization to reduce rural poverty? The Millennium Declaration summit of which 191 countries are members, made rural poverty reduction as their main objective to be met by the year 2015.The Secretary General of this Summit lay emphasis on globalization as the tool that will be used in order to meet the need of the poor.(United Nation :2001).Therefore, in achieving their aim the role of the United Nations as well as other agencies are of great importance. Suggestions in admitting other agencies were acknowledge and approved by the ACC in October 2001.which was formulated by the United Nations Development Group. Among these agencies are the UNFPA, United Nation Childrens Education Fund (UNICEF) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) World Health Organization (WHO), UNCDP, UNESCO, just to mention a few. As in the argument of the (United Nations: 2001). Furthermore, it is argued that United Nations Programme in addressing the issue of poverty reduction is a challenging issue. Agencies mentioned above had roles to play in one way or the other. Though, some role could be of major benefit than the other. As the suggestion made by the Millennium Declaration Goals that globalization is a means or tool in fighting against rural poverty is to be met therefore, globalization based good and services, financial economic, social as well as global public goods should be seen as benefits in the rural poor through enhanced governance system .(United Nations 2001:10) Moreover, the United Nations major role as an impact of globalization in poverty reduction is argued to be guided in three different levels. These levels includes: the international, regional and the local level. They are said to be in cooperation with one and the other. It is further argued that each of this level has important role to play in actualizing the aim of the programme, which is the coming together of the United Nations, the Private and public sectors the civil society as well as the poverty group(United Nations: Some of the plans established in accelerating globalization/poverty reduction will focus on improve Governance correlating with PRSPs and UNDAF; an institution to reform and liberalize market programmes for the welfare and protection of the poor. Linked programme for a national ICTD with greater focus on satisfying issues and bringing together the rural and urban. Exporting of crops in the rural area by enhancing its information system. Establish a procedure that will add value in rural production. United Nations: Among the programmes set up for local poverty reduction are the local awareness programme on availability of goods and services for rural poverty reduction. Establishment of interest point for the community, aid for local governance and splitting into various offices to attend to different poverty groups to global public goods- health, education etc.The quickening of Information Communication Development Technology (ICTD) for various poverty groups will create awareness and tools for information sharing device tools, improve agricultural tools and move to improve productivity akin to socially sensitive local globalization /poverty reduction programme.(United Nations: The procedure of UN system in dealing with globalization and alleviation of poverty at all levels is on ground and can be used to determine the strategy for the new globalization/poverty alleviation model. The procedures considered range from providing an avenue for debate and discussion that include the intergovernmental processes, expert group meetings; open debate, meetings prepared for major global summits (prepcoms) and various events like the joint session with the G-77, South-South forum. These are primarily arranged through the UN secretariat (especially UNDESA), funds and programme (especially UNDP) and a special agency (especially World Bank Group) which is part of their activities and provide the most important contribution of the UN system to views and approaches emerging. The extent of debate at which globalization rural poverty reduction is discussed varies and depends on the nature of the division and agency.(United Nations: The UN pays little attention to particular issues on globalization as a factor in rural poverty reduction despite the much discussion on globalization. Another branch is the research studies, statistics and seminars in different publications. The UN provides an enormous technical studies and relevant statistics to almost all the branches of globalization- poverty reduction debate. With the exception of examples given below- the mission of rural poverty alleviation is almost neglected. Other worth mentioning body in this regard are the UN research system and Training Institute that include INSTRAW (rural women and globalization); UNITAR (Globalization issues on how UN system will cope); UNRISD (social impact of globalization) have all produced much important studies to the globalization/poverty reduction debate. Nevertheless, defining the cause in stance on globalization and rural poverty reduction has been defeated by the UN plan with the exception of the World Bank, UNCTAD and UNDP- but still focus on the wider globalization agenda. This view however, is of significant to developing an assiduous approach and adopting a more socially, acceptable and human form of globalization that will build specific provisions for the nations exempted through different mechanisms such as the WTO, trade negotiations, finance for development, PRSPs etc. Field level operation of Funds, Progarammes and Specialized Agencies. These have many parts covering many forms of intervention that can always target poverty alleviation. The traditional areas include: Country project activities to yield capacity building, Seminars, Workshops Fellowship Infrastructural development The implementation of an organized approach to globalization/poverty alleviation is the UN system policy in the field under the UNDAF system. The World Bank via the PRSPs is helping to coordinate the UN system in the field. Finally, globalization as it is defined is a wide and vast phenomenon that has so much to do and achieve. Considering its characteristics and its functions, it has in one many ways achieve enormously. Moreover, in terms of how the international relations theory and globalization
Saturday, January 18, 2020
Euripides Paper Essay
Of the plays that survived the Hellenistic Era of Greece, few survive out of the thousands that were written in celebration of the Festival Of Dionysus. This festival was in honor of the great god of wine, a relatively new Olympian borne of Zeus and a mortal woman, Semele (Rachel Gross, Dale Grote, 1997). He was celebrated as not only the god of wine but also of nature, fertility and later, the stage.            The Bacchae by Euripides is the most famous account of the Dionysian cult, and through its disturbing tale of destruction and horrific method of worship it paints a picture of extremism unlike other tales. It is possible that Euripides, during his stay in the court of the king of Macedon, saw a sect of the cult whose ritual practices were extremist or it could be that Euripides was attempting to make a statement about the danger of cultist thinking.            Dionysus was the only Olympian to have been born twice, once when Zeus killed his mother with a thunderbolt then rescued the unborn child, inserted him into his own thigh for the rest of his gestation, and gave birth to him.            One theme that runs through the Dionysian cult is rejection; the Dionysus stories repeatedly tell of Dionysus entering a city, being rejected as a god and bringing destruction to his opponents.            It does appear that the authors of the classical plays in the Hellenistic Era either wished to encourage worshippers to remain loyal to their gods or they wished to instill fear in the public regarding the vengeful nature of the gods if they are not obeyed. An example of this is Euripides’ tale of Dionysus’ revenge on Pentheus, king of Thebes. As patient and devious as only a god could be, Dionysus lets himself be captured after driving local women (including Pentheus’ mother) into divine madness. Dionysus, disguised, is believed to be behind the women suddenly running into the forest from the city. Dionysus cannot be restrained, as he amply shows his captor Pentheus. Eventually Dionysis leads Pentheus (dressed as a woman) to his death by the hands of his own mother, who does not recognize him in her state of madness.            The choir sings the praises of Dionysus, who is later able to show himself to Thebes for who he really is.            A recurrent theme in The Bacchae is justice, disguise, revenge, and the balance of power, all centered on a god and his followers opposing a mortal and the non-believers.            Along the same lines and also reflecting the religion of the time as well as portraying the continual battles that were waged between city-states that vied for dominion, were plays written by Sophocles, Aeschylus, and later Aristophanes.            Politics were mixed in with religious rites and rituals, as is written in all of the plays examined. Similarity exists in stories of son against father, brother against sister, and a god dictating the actions of all the major players with the oracles being the messengers delivering prophecies and directions to the mere mortals. A marvelous intertwining of emotions, decisions, protocols, ethics and treachery are exhibited by both mortals and gods in these works, but the gods tend to influence the mortals to turn on each other rather than directly intervene.            In Prometheus Bound, Aeschylus exposes the revenge of gods upon a god, as opposed to Dionysus’ revenge on Thebes for rejecting him. Still, the theme of suffering is woven and fear is stricken into the audience as a great god who had created the mortals done so much for them is ruthlessly punished by Zeus.            Prometheus Bound is the second play of a trilogy, and uses no stage. In that, it is unique; the entire play takes place in the balconies (ed. Alfred Bates, 1906, p.73). This adds to the feeling that a battle is being waged in the heavens, a common theme reflected in the mythology of the Greek pantheon.            Prometheus brought fire to mankind out of sympathy for their ignorance and darkness. At first Zeus was angry, but when he smelled the aroma of the rich sacrifices cooking over the fires he decided to bide his time to see what would happen next. As in The Bacchae, Zeus is alternately portrayed as a benevolent yet very vengeful god.            Prometheus Bound illustrates the suffering of torture for a god who cannot die because he is immortal; this would give pause to any Hellenistic person who might wish to become a god. At least humans can be freed from the pains of mortality through death, even if brought about by an angry god.            One passage in particular reflects how rejection is a theme that repeats itself in Hellenistic plays, wrenching emotion from the audience and expressed in such a way as to be all too common in tragedy; Prometheus, chained to the mountainside where a bird of prey arrives daily to eat his liver, cries out, â€Å"The foe of Zeus, and held In hatred by all gods Who tread the courts of Zeus; And this for my great love, Too great, for mortal man†(Bates, p. 76).            Along comes Hermes, in a powerful scene, bids Prometheus to reveal the marriage that will produce the undoing of Zeus’ position. Prometheus adamantly refuses to reveal such a thing unless he is unbound.            Interestingly enough, Zeus had already had a warning regarding a child who would overthrow him; after his liaison with the Titan Metis, Zeus was told that the unborn child would bring about his undoing. He turned Metis into a fly and swallowed her; the child gestated inside of Zeus’ head and later emerged as the goddess Athena. Once again we find Zeus hatching a child within his own body, as Dionysus was.            Even in his suffering, Prometheus is adamant about justice. He had created mortals under Zeus’ orders, he had taught them everything. When Zeus saw the mortals becoming too powerful, able to reason and think for themselves, he saw his own position threatened. This theme is also reflected in different ways and with different scenarios in the plays of the period. Essentially this is a political attitude, which seems to be misplaced among all-powerful and perfect gods, but as humans had godlike qualities, the gods also had very human qualities. Such was the relationship between the Greek Olympians and the Greek people, a mutual relationship of favors granted, sacrifices made and honors given or withdrawn. What we know of this relationship is mostly from writers such as Homer and Plato as well as the playwrights.            The Prometheus trilogy elaborated on the creation of man, the wrath of Zeus, intervention by Prometheus, the advancement of mankind and the gift of Prometheus (the return of fire). This was followed by the punishment of Prometheus and the ill will of the Olympians toward him. Loyalty to Zeus and the recognition that the gods were only as powerful as their mortal worshippers are reflective of politicians and celebrities of today; a stat is only as stellar as the public allows it to be.            Finally Prometheus is freed and is reconciled amongst the Olympians, but for all he did for mortals, it appears that he was not worshipped, nor was he a patron god of any polis or temple. Apparently his fallibility made him unworthy of mortal worship. Unlike Dionysus, however, Prometheus did not exact revenge on those who did not recognize him.            Turning to more complicated matters, we shall now look at the Oedipus plays by Sophocles. This series reveals the role of fate and the irrevocable will of the gods, this time involving Apollo.            Running along common Greek themes of deplorable situations (such as Zeus killing Dionysus’ mother and realizing with horror that she carried his unborn child, Prometheus being horribly tortured for loving his creations so much that he defied Zeus, and the horror of bedding one’s own mother and bearing children by her), Oedipus the King by Sophocles brings about the role played by fate and the unquestionable role of destiny that mortals cannot escape even if forewarned and taking all precautions.            Oracles and prophets relayed messages from the gods to mortals, and those whom had a shadow cast over their lives had no choice play out their lives in the manner decreed by the gods.            Oedipus was one of those people, sent away by his mother to be murdered since it was predicted that he would kill his father; a kindly Shepard took Oedipus to be raised in the court of the king and queen of Corinth. Oedipus was not aware of his true parentage.            As a young prince, Oedipus overhears a conversation announcing that he was not the true son of the king and queen, so he sought the advice of the Oracle of Delphi. This is where he learned of his destiny, which had been revealed to his mother years before. Another common theme of the Hellenistic Era is the accuracy of the Oracle of Delphi, who can see into the plans of the gods and will advise mortals as she sees fit.            Oedipus was horrified to hear his fate and, still believing that he was the son of the king and queen of Corinth, he sought to escape the horrible prophecy by leaving the palace. This is another case in point where it was believed that a mortal could not escape what the gods had decreed for their future, and it wasn’t until philosophy took a strong stance in Greek society that the gods were questioned as omniscient beings that controlled the destiny of every person. In the case of Oedipus, had he kept his head and stayed in the palace at Corinth, the story would have been much different but even the reader of the plays will doubt that he could have changed his fate.            Oedipus traveled to Thebes, fell in love with and married Jocasta, Queen of Thebes. Jocasta was the widow of Kind Laius, who had been killed in a skirmish with a band of thieves just prior to Oedipus’ arrival.            Oedipus and Jocasta had four children; two daughters (Antigone and Ismeme) and two sons (Polynices and Eteocles). While the offspring of Oedipus and Jocasta do not appear significantly in Oedipus the King (Oedipus Rex), their existence is significant for the act that Antigone will later commit in a state of unbending intent, without regard for any punishment from gods or humans.            Eventually a plague strikes Thebes and the citizenry asks Oedipus for help. Oedipus replies that he has already sent the Queen’s brother (Creon) to the Oracle at Delphi for advise. Once again, great faith in the gods and the Oracle is demonstrated, and the Oracle is consulted in order to consult with the gods themselves; such incidents as natural disasters and plagues were undoubtedly initiated by one of the gods whom has been displeased, and only the Oracle had the authority to dispense with the remedy for the situation. Also, Thebes reasserts itself as a city of major importance, politically, being the very city that rejected Dionysus.            Chreon returns to report that the Oracle at Delphi says that when the murderer of Laius is captured and expelled, the plague will end.            Oedipus sets out immediately to discover who murdered the King of Thebes, and imagine his horror when he finds out from a local prophet that it was he who had slain the king at the crossroads where the attack had occurred. The only survivor of the attack, a Shepard, is then interrogated; Oedipus still wants to deny that he himself was King Laius’ murderer and Jocasta supports him by ridiculing prophecy and such fanciful thought.            The climax of the play occurs when the Shepard reveals that long ago he had taken a baby from the King and Queen of Thebes and passed it on to a Shepard of Corinth; the baby’s mother had wanted it murdered because of a prophecy that it would kill its parents. The coin drops for Oedipus:            â€Å"Ah me! ah me! all brought to pass, all true! O light, may I behold thee nevermore! I stand a wretch, in birth, in wedlock cursed, A parricide, incestuously, triply cursed!†(trans. F. Storr, 1912).            Oedipus later finds Jocasta inside the palace, dead from hanging herself. Oedipus immediately blinds himself and begs to be exiled. Once again we have Thebes expelling a man of prominence, but this time by the man’s request. Where Dionysus had been twice born, Oedipus had been twice expelled from Thebes.            The plays depicted above are three great tragedies and hopefully it is clear that the myths and religious overtones occupying the minds and hearts of the Hellenistic Greeks have been demonstrated here to have a recurring theme.            We will now turn to a play of comedy that also has its own flavor yet displays the loyalty to the gods and abides by the principles of Greek society. As a departure from the woes of rejected gods and men, Arisophanes provides the audience with laughter as he resurrects Euripides and Aeschylus, thus acknowledging their greatness and praising Dionysus at the same time as the god of theater.            Binding together the power of Dionysus while poking fun at the god of wine and revelry, Aristophanes writes a slapstick style play in The Frogs. This play has it all; gods, arguments, parody and politics, plus it contains references to the mythological hero Heracles, Charon (the ferryman at the river Styx), and a few Olympians plus the Nine Muses.            Even today, this play is extremely funny for those who are familiar with Greek mythology and would be enjoyed even by those who are not, if acted well.            In The Frogs, Dionysus is tired of the absence of the absence of meaty dramas in theater and feels that this is a reflection on his honor. He decides to travel to Hades to fetch Euripides and bring him back to Earth. His servant Xanthias accompanies Dionysus.            In order to â€Å"blend in†in the underworld, Dionysus dresses as Heracles and consults Heracles for advice and directions before setting off. Once in the underworld, Dionysus is assaulted by the inhabitants seeking revenge for things Heracles had done during one of his journeys to Hades, and Dionysus begs Xanthias to change costumes. No sooner is this done, Persephone (daughter of Demeter and Queen of Hades) invites Heracles to a banquet. Dionysus insists on donning the lion skins again in order that he may attend the banquet, but as soon as he changes, angry people assault him once again. He is finally so afraid he reveals who he really is (reminiscent of revealing himself to Thebes in The Bacchae).            Once it is known throughout Hades that Dionysus is present there, an argument breaks out between Euripides and Aeschylus over who is the better playwright. Insults are traded as thus:            EURIPIDES Don’t talk to me; I won’t give up the chair, I say I am better in the art than he. DIONYSUS You hear him, Aeschylus: why don’t you speak? EURIPIDES He’ll do the grand at first, the juggling trick He used to play in all his tragedies. DIONYSUS Come, my fine fellow, pray don’t talk to big. EURIPIDES I know the man, I’ve scanned him through and through, A savage-creating stubborn-pulling fellow, Uncurbed, unfettered, uncontrolled of speech, Unperiphrastic, bombastiloquent. AESCHYLUS Hah! sayest thou so, child of the garden quean And this to me, thou chattery-babble-collector, Thou pauper-creating rags-and-patches-stitcher? Thou shalt abye it dearly! DIONYSUS Pray, be still; Nor heat thy soul to fury, Aeschylus. AESCHYLUS Not till I’ve made you see the sort of man This cripple-maker is who crows so loudly. DIONYSUS Bring out a ewe, a black-fleeced ewe, my boys: Here’s a typhoon about to burst upon us. AESCHYLUS Thou picker-up of Cretan monodies, Foisting thy tales of incest on the stage- (Internet Classics Archives, 1994 – 2000).            In the end, a trial is conducted to see who the King Of Tragedy really is; it is decided to weigh the writings to see whose was heaviest. Aeschylus turned out to have the meatier scripts, so Dionysus took him to Earth instead of Euripides, even though in truth Euripides was regarded the better of the two at the time (Alice Fort, Herbert Kates, 1935).            In both comedy and tragedy, the ties to the gods and the themes of conflict, murder, revenge and long-suffering are present in Hellenistic plays. The ancient Greek society was rich in imagination and devout in its worship of the gods; eventually the Greek culture would spread throughout the Persian Empire and rule until the Roman conquest.            In conclusion and to display a part of the beauty of devotion to the gods, an excerpt from Callimachus’ Hymn to Artemis, which expresses the reverence typical of the Greek attitude toward their gods:            â€Å"Lady, may my true friends and I be among those, Queen, and may I always care about song. I will sing Leto’s wedlock, Apollo, and always Artemis: your labors, dogs, archery, and chariot that lifts you lightly-behold-on your way to Zeus’s heavenly abode†(Callimachus, Jean Alvares 1998). References Aristophanes. â€Å"The Frogs.†The Internet Classics Archives, MIT. 1994 – 2000, 18 December 2005. http://classics.mit.edu/Aristophanes/frogs.html Bates, Alfred (ed.). â€Å"PROMETHEUS BOUND: A summary and analysis of the play by Aeschylus.†The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, vol. 1. London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906. pp. 70-78. Callimachus. â€Å"Hymn III: To Aretemis.†Montclair State University, Jean Alvares. 1998 – 2003, 18 December 2005. http://www.chss.montclair.edu/classics/HYMNART.HTML Gross ,Rachel and Grote ,Dale. â€Å"Dionysus.†Encyclopedia Mythica. 1995 – 2004, 16 December 2002. http://www.pantheon.org/articles/d/dionysus.html Storr, F (trans.). â€Å"Oedipus the King.†Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA and William Heinemann Ltd, London. 1912, 17 December 2005. http://www.online-literature.com/view.php/oedipus/1?term=king%20oedipus
Friday, January 10, 2020
Relationship Between Art and Religion Essay
Humans have since the very earliest time of their existence questioned various fundamental facts about their existence and the world around them. They have tried to answer the mysteries of life such as how they came into existence and what happens after their death. These questions they discovered could be only answered through religion and science. Religion went about explaining that all things were there because of some greater spiritual being which brought everything and everyone into existence. Religion especially during ancient times put God as the master creator of all things and beings, having created men on all other creations. The average person doesn’t usually think of art as something that influences religion yet in true facts art helps us visualize our beliefs since as humans we at times find it easier to believe that which we see. Even in the Bible we find that humans have made sculptures, statues and paintings of their god in order for them to have something that reminds them of that greater force and act as intermediaries between them as moral beings and God as a divine spiritual being. For example Early Christians used the fish as a symbol of God which is now replaced by the symbol of the cross; Ancient Egyptians who worshipped numerous god’s used a falcons head as a symbol of their sun god Ra, and Muslims with the symbol of a moon and star. In Ancient Greece it was customary for artists to represent the Olympian deities in perfectly-modelled men or women because they believed that the god’s were somewhat like humans but in perfect form and that they were immortal. Art helped (and still does) people visualize all that their religion was implementing so that they could understand, believe and have faith. It was also important because many people where illiterate and so through paintings and sculpt stories painted on the walls of churches, the word of God could be delivered to them as well. Art is still visible on many religious buildings for example the paintings found on the inside and outside of walls of churches illustrates a story from, in the case of Christians, the Holy Bible. Some examples of such would be the cathedral in Rome and that of Milan which are both of extraordinary aesthetic beauty. Art when it comes to religion is a way of spreading the word of God in a non-literal way. The beauty of art is that many people can interpret art work differently therefore a religious art piece can be inspiring and motivational to my life as well as to another in a whole different way because we would have both taken the same message but applied it to our lives in different ways. Therefore art is a language which anyone can speak, understand and interpret personally. Some worldwide renowned artists whose art was influenced by religion are Michelangelo in The Creation of Adam and The Last Judgement, Leonardo Da Vinci in Virgin of The Rocks and Tintoretto in The Crucifixion. Apart from paintings and buildings religion also influenced music in fact nowadays we have multiple praise songs in different religions. In a nut shell whilst religion has left its mark on Art, art has been a helping hand and necessity when it comes to the delivering of the word of God.
Thursday, January 2, 2020
Introduction to Chinas May Fourth Movement
The demonstrations of the May Fourth Movement (ä ºâ€Ã¥â€ºâ€ºÃ© ‹å‹•, WÇâ€sà ¬ Yà ¹ndà ²ng) marked a turning point in China’s intellectual development which can still be felt today. While the May Fourth Incident occurred on May 4, 1919, the May Fourth Movement began in 1917 when China declared war against Germany. During World War I, China supported the Allies on the condition that control over Shandong Province, the birthplace of Confucius, would be returned to China if the Allies triumphed. In 1914, Japan had seized control of Shandong from Germany and in 1915 Japan had issued 21 Demands (ä ºÅ'Ã¥ ä ¸â‚¬Ã¥â‚¬â€¹Ã¦ ¢ é …, Èr shà yÄ «gà ¨ tià ¡o xià ng) to China, backed by the threat of war. The 21 Demands included recognition of Japan’s seizure of German spheres of influence in China and other economic and extraterritorial concessions. To appease Japan, the corrupt Anfu government in Beijing signed a humiliating treaty with Japan by which China acceded to Japan’s demands. Though China was on the winning side of World War I, China’s representatives were told to sign away rights to German-controlled Shandong Province to Japan at the Treaty of Versailles, an unprecedented and embarrassing diplomatic defeat. The dispute over Article 156 of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles became known as the Shandong Problem (Ã¥ ± ±Ã¦ ±Ã¥â€¢ é ¡Å', ShÄ ndÃ… ng Wà ¨ntà ). The event was embarrassing because it was revealed at Versailles that secret treaties had been previously signed by the great European powers and Japan to entice Japan to enter World War I. Moreover, it was brought to light that China had also agreed to this arrangement. Wellington Kuo (é ¡ §Ã§ ¶ 鈞), China’s ambassador to Paris, refused to sign the treaty. The transfer of German rights in Shandong to Japan at the Versailles Peace Conference created anger among the Chinese public. The Chinese viewed the transfer as a betrayal by the Western powers and also as a symbol of Japanese aggression and of the weakness of the corrupt warlord government of Yuan Shi-kai (è ¢ ä ¸â€"å‡ ±). Infuriated by China’s humiliation at Versailles, college students in Beijing held a demonstration on May 4, 1919. What was the May Fourth Movement? At 1:30 p.m. on Sunday, May 4, 1919, approximately 3,000 students from 13 Beijing universities assembled at the Gate of Heavenly Peace at Tiananmen Square to protest against the Versailles Peace Conference. The demonstrators distributed fliers declaring that the Chinese would not accept the concession of Chinese territory to Japan. The group marched to the legation quarter, the location of foreign embassies in Beijing, The student protestors presented letters to foreign ministers. In the afternoon, the group confronted three Chinese cabinet officials who had been responsible for the secret treaties that encouraged Japan to enter the war. The Chinese minister to Japan was beaten and a pro-Japanese cabinet minister’s house was set on fire. The police attacked the protestors and arrested 32 students. News of the students’ demonstration and arrest spread throughout China. The press demanded the students’ release and similar demonstrations sprung up in Fuzhou. Guangzhou, Nanjing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Wuhan. Shop closings in June 1919 exacerbated the situation and led to a boycott of Japanese goods and clashes with Japanese residents. Recently-formed labor unions also staged strikes. The protests, shop closings, and strikes continued until the Chinese government agreed to release the students and fire the three cabinet officials. The demonstrations led to a full resignation by the cabinet and the Chinese delegation at Versailles refused to sign the peace treaty. The issue of who would control Shandong Province was settled at the Washington Conference in 1922 when Japan withdrew its claim to Shandong Province. The May Fourth Movement in Modern Chinese History While student protests are more common today, the May Fourth Movement was led by intellectuals who introduced new cultural ideas including science, democracy, patriotism, and anti-imperialism to the masses. In 1919, communication was not as advanced as today, so efforts to mobilize the masses focused on pamphlets, magazine articles, and literature written by intellectuals. Many of these intellectuals had studied in Japan and returned to China. The writings encouraged a social revolution and challenged traditional Confucian values of familial bonds and deference to authority. The writers also encouraged self-expression and sexual freedom. The period of 1917-1921 is also referred to as the New Culture Movement (æâ€" °Ã¦â€"‡åÅ'â€"é ‹å‹•, XÄ «n Wà ©nhuà Yà ¹ndà ²ng). What started as a cultural movement after the failure of the Chinese Republic turned political after the Paris Peace Conference, which gave German rights over Shandong to Japan. The May Fourth Movement marked an intellectual turning point in China. Collectively, the goal of scholars and students was to rid the Chinese culture of those elements which they believed had led to China’s stagnation and weakness and to create new values for a new, modern China.
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